EDITOR’S NOTE: This work by Australian, Andrew Williamson, a
music/ classroom primary school educator with over 17 years’ experience
proposes that innovation stems from thinking in particular ways in order for
educators to discuss educating for innovation in terms of educating for the
processes and tools of innovative thinking. Williamson investigates the use of
creativity in education and blogs at http://www.andrewwilliamson.me/.
NAIJAGRAPHITTI Blog publishes this work in a
two-part series. Here is the first part.
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| Credit Illustration by Boyoun Kim; Image source: New Yorker |
By Andrew Williamson
The purpose of this paper is to
explore these three questions:
o How can educating for thinking
promote innovation and creativity?
o What are the different
approaches for educating for thinking?
o Can educating for metacognitive organization and cognitive acceleration promote creative thinking?
Part 1
For the past 3 years I have been a classroom teacher where
one of my jobs was to implement and drive the use of technology so that it is
integrated seamlessly throughout the school curriculum. What I mean by this is
that technology is ‘just there’ like a pencil case so when a student or teacher
want to use it as a teaching and learning tool they just pick it up. During
this time I have often come across the terms ‘innovation, innovative schools, innovative
classrooms and innovative teachers’. These terms are often bandied about as the
‘way forward’ for 21st century learning. It has been argued that the school of
the future should be predominantly based on innovation and interactive
creativity with new technology and new ways of acting (Craft, 2005; Sawyer,
2006). However, I have found that innovation in education is often defined in
terms of the technology and the tools. I find this to be a superficial
interpretation especially when it’s at the expense of pedagogical thought. In
this essay I propose that innovation stems from thinking in particular ways,
and therefore as educators we need to discuss educating for innovation in terms
of educating for the processes and tools of innovative thinking.
First, what does it mean to be innovative and why is it
important in education? By definition, when a person is being innovative it
usually means that they are introducing new ideas, that is, that they are being
original and creative in their thinking. A person could be described as an
innovative thinker (New Oxford English Dictionary). Innovation is inextricably
linked to creativity so for the purposes of this essay I will use the terms
interchangeably. Innovation is seen to be a driver of global economic activity,
and in this context is linked to economic growth.
That is, without the ability to reinvent itself or to create
something new markets may face becoming obsolete (Craft, 2003). Reflecting
this, creativity is seen as ‘continual innovation and resourcefulness that is a
necessity for economic survival’ (Craft, 2003). The implication here is that
the economy demands innovative thought and creativity, and a healthy economy is
linked to a wealthy society (Craft, 2003). These ideas have implications for
the workforce and education.
On a micro level, there is also some benefit to the
individual who is also creative in their everyday life. According to Maslow
(1970) the creative individual is also a fulfilled one. He also puts forward
the notion that creativity is not experienced by only a few, but rather it is
an everyday phenomenon experienced by everyday people (Maslow, 1970). Maslow’s
assumption here is that creativity is evident in everyday occurrences such as
doing housework or professional occurrences where there is specialization of
knowledge and experience and that it’s not exclusive to individuals who
participate in art. Goleman et al.
(1992) also argue that much innovation and problem solving occurs in everyday
life. The idea that an element of a fulfilled individual is one who is creative emphasizes the importance of linking creativity and innovation in education.
Second, what does innovation have to do with thinking? The
Oxford dictionary definition cited above links the concept of ‘thinking’ or
‘thinker’ to creativity, that is a person is being innovative when they are
being creative in their thinking. By this definition it is clear that
creativity is not an output, but a mode of operating which originates in the
realm of thinking. For example, if we look at a painting produced by an artist,
the act of creativity is not the painting but is the thinking which the artist
employed which is then manifested in the painting. Further, the United
Kingdom’s National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education
defines creativity as ‘a mode of learning which encompasses 'thoughtful
playfulness' through experimenting, exploring, critically evaluating and
testing, and a conscious attempt to challenge assumptions and preconceptions of
self, expressed as the 'active effort to unlearn in order to learn afresh'.
Active engagement in creative learning encourages
participants to engage in 'self-monitoring, reflection upon their own
performance and progress, and thinking about their own thinking metacognition’
(National Advisory Committee and Cultural Education, 1999, p.92). So my thesis
is that to educate for creativity and innovation, we must educate for creative
and innovative thinking.
So what actually is creative and innovative thinking and how
do we teach people to do it? To answer this question I will explore the various
approaches to educating for thinking. Thinking is the deliberate exploration of
experience for purpose. That purpose may be decision making, problem solving,
understanding, planning, judgement, action and so on (De Bono, 1976).
There are many approaches in educating for thinking. Harpaz’s
formula for good thinking is as follows:
‘good
thinking = thinking skills+thinking dispositions+understandings of knowledge’.
(Harpaz 2007).
Whilst this assignment does not provide an exhaustive list of
approaches for the education for thinking, I would like to concentrate on these
three as well as focusing on the benefits of metacognition and cognitive
acceleration. That is, when a student is thinking creatively or innovatively
what skills, dispositions and understandings are they engaged in?
I think it’s important to describe the environment that is
needed for good thinking. For me good thinking is linked to good learning. If
the student is placed in a space where they are able to think then they will be
able to learn. I have always had some key principles that I adhere to when
setting up a learning environment. In a way it is probably best described as a
learning culture and I would also like to incorporate these tenets into what I
think is a good environment for thinking. A student learns best when they feel
that they are in a comfortable place where they can take risks with their
thinking and learning. That is, they able to learn and think in an environment
where they are safe from harmful ridicule. Students need to be able to practice
their thinking skills and dispositions and test their understandings in a
supportive and positive environment. I am not suggesting that criticism is non-existent
in such an environment, but that when it does occur it is justified and
thoughtfully backed up with good reasoning. A respectful environment needs to
exist and be demonstrated through thoughtful listening and openness to
different ideas and opinions.
A skill is the ability to do something, so a thinking skill
is the ability to think in a particular way. A thinking skill is like any other
skill in that people are able to learn and practice it and it is possible to
‘get better’ at it. De Bono describes thinking as a set of learnable skills.
That is, we can improve our thinking and apply it to intelligence if we can
pick a type of thinking that needs to be improved and set up some tasks that
enable us to practice it. (De Bono, 1976). For example, a creative thinking
skill might be the ability to ‘think outside the box’ or to think in terms of
all possible combinations or look at something from a different perspective.
Therefore, if a teacher wanted their students to improve their abilities to
‘think outside the box’ they would have to create a situation where the
students could practice that skill. Further, De Bono suggests that we have the
capacity to think more skillfully if we are able to apply the right tools (De
Bono, 1976). A carpenter understands that they need to use a nail to join two
pieces of wood. The carpenter would know that a hammer is the correct tool to
use in his tool box to complete the job. Hammering the nail with a screw driver
wouldn’t be as efficient. For the student who needs to practice thinking
outside the box, the teacher might suggest a series of ‘role playing’
activities to seek an alternative outcome in order test their imaginative ideas.
This is an example of what De Bono refers to as attention directing activities
(De Bono, 1976, p.49). These are tools that aim to draw out a particular
thinking skill. If practiced enough then it becomes natural which then lends
itself to the idea of thinking as a disposition, an inclination to apply a
thinking skill.
It should be noted that educating for thinking skills
generally occurs through a transmission of knowledge from the teacher to the
student. Harpaz refers to this as a pattern of impartation that is aimed at
imparting thinking skills, and as such, belongs to the realm of teaching aimed
at imparting skills of any kind (Harpaz, 2002).
The teaching of thinking skills is important in helping the students
to develop a particular type of thinking, but will they use it? What will
motivate them to use their thinking skills and how will they know when to use
them? Perkins et al claim that what sets good thinkers apart from those who are
not are their abiding tendencies to explore, inquire, seek clarity, take intellectual
risks, and think critically and imaginatively (Perkins et al., 1993). These tendencies can be called ‘thinking
dispositions’. A disposition is where a person has the motivation or the inclination
to do something. A disposition to think is an inclination to be involved in
thinking and to invest in it (Harpaz, 2007). A student must want to think in a
particular way (Ritchart, 2002) in order for them to employ a thinking skill.
Dispositions are sometimes referred to as habits. Costa et al. developed a set of 16 thinking habits around this theory,
however some of the sixteen aren’t what you might consider a type of thinking.
For example ‘awe and wonderment’ could be considered to be an emotion rather
than a type of thinking. Perkins et al describe 7 main types of thinking
dispositions, whilst also suggesting that there are many more than seven but
some are considered counterproductive and therefore deemed not good (Perkins et
al. 1993). Ritchart narrows his list to 6 thinking dispositions by analyzing and synthesizing the various theoretical positions on the nature of a thinking
disposition. He categorizes them into three main headings:
[1]
Creative Thinking: looking out, up, around and about
●
Open Minded
●
Curious
[2]
Reflective Thinking: looking within
●
Metacognitive
[3]
Critical Thinking: looking at, through, and in between
●
Seeking truth and understanding
●
Strategic
●
Skeptical
Ritchart links certain behaviours with each thinking
disposition (Ritchart, 2002). As shown above, he describes creative thinking in
terms of ‘looking out, up, around and about’. This implies an action, a doing.
This is important because having the 'inclination
to do something' is one
thing but actually ‘doing’ is something else. What this means is, it’s
important to ensure that the student has the motivation to think in a
particular way, but it’s just as important for them to recognize that there are
certain behaviours that they will exhibit when engaged in a particular type of
thinking. An example would be that the student who is thinking reflectively is
acknowledging and listening to their inner voice. Perkins et al. go further and
claim that thinking dispositions also comprise three behavioural elements:
Abilities, the student can exhibit a particular thinking behaviour (skill);
Sensitivities, an awareness to know when to exhibit the behaviour; and
Inclinations, to actually behave in a certain way and value that type of
behaviour (Perkins et al., 1992). The
emphasis on behaviour is vitally important because it implies that the student
is making a conscious choice, displaying a considered preference and reasoned
attitude (Harpaz, 2007). This is distinct from a habit in that a habit implies
an unconscious process and to some degree we educate for thinking so that the
student’s behaviour becomes habitual.
However,
it’s a conscious and controlled deployment of a thinking strategy that the
student has chosen to engage in. So one could say that cultivating thinking
dispositions empowers the student to deliberately employ a creative thinking
skill, to know the right time or circumstances in which to think creatively,
and to be motivated to do so because they value thinking creatively.
TO BE CONTINUED
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